ref: a351bcdccdf5a4273bc8dc3360a48fbb8b8aa9ea
parent: 87288afa5ac476efb3ef1ed40df658427339f13e
author: Dave Woodman <dave@naffnet.org.uk>
date: Wed Sep 13 15:46:04 EDT 2023
Tidy
--- a/tt.ms
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,2628 +1,0 @@
-.so tmacs
-.BC 1 "Getting started
-.BS 2 "What is an Operating System?
-.LP
-The
-.B "operating system
-is the software that lets you use the computer.
-What this means depends on the user's perspective. For example, for
-my mother, the operating system would include not just Windows, but most
-programs in the computer as well. For a programmer, many applications are
-not considered part of the system. However, he would consider compilers,
-libraries, and other programming tools as part of it. For a systems programmer,
-the software considered part of the system might be even more constrained. We
-will get back to this later.
-.ix libraries
-.PP
-This book aims to teach you how to effectively use the system (in many cases, we say just
-“system” to refer to the operating system). This means
-using the functions it provides, and the programs and languages that come
-with it to let the machine do the job. The difference between ignoring how to
-ask the system to do things and knowing how to do it,
-is the difference between requiring
-hours or days to accomplish many tasks and being able to do it in minutes.
-You have to make your choice.
-If you want to read a textbook that describes the theory and abstract concepts
-related to operating systems, you may refer to [1].
-.PP
-So, what is an operating system? It is just
-.I "a set of programs that lets you use the computer" .
-The point is that hardware is complex and is far from the concepts
-you use as a programmer. There are many different
-types of processors, hardware devices for Input/Output (I/O),
-and other artifacts. If you had to write software
-to drive all the ones you want to use, you would not have time to write your own
-application software. The concept is therefore similar to a software library. Indeed, operating
-systems begun as libraries used by people to write programs for a machine.
-.PP
-When you power up the computer, the operating system program is loaded into
-memory. This program is called the
-.B kernel .
-Once initialized, the system program is prepared to run user programs and permits
-them use the hardware by calling into it. From this point on, you can think about
-the system as a library. There are three main benefits that justify using an operating
-system:
-.IP 1
-You don't have to write the operating system software yourself, you can reuse it.
-.IP 2
-You can forget about details related to how the hardware works, because this
-.I library
-provides more abstract data types to package services provided by the hardware.
-.IP 3
-You can forget about how to manage and share the hardware among
-different programs in the same computer, because this
-.I library
-has been implemented for use with multiple programs simultaneously.
-.LP
-Most of the programs you wrote in the past used disks, displays,
-keyboards, and other devices. You did not have to write the software to drive
-these devices, which is nice. This argument is so strong that nothing more should
-have to be said to convince you. It is true that most programmers underestimate
-the effort made by others and overestimate what they can do by themselves. But
-surely you would not apply this to all the software necessary to let you use the
-hardware.
-.PP
-Abstract data types are also a convenience to write software.
-For example, you wrote programs using
-.I files .
-However, your hard disk knows
-.I nothing
-about files. Your hard disk knows how to store blocks of bytes. Even more,
-it only knows about blocks of the same size. However, you prefer to use
-.I names
-for a piece of persistent data in your disk, that you imagine as contiguous storage
-nicely packaged in a
-.I file .
-The operating system invents the
-.CW file
-data type, and provides you with operations to handle objects of this type.
-Even the file's
-.I name
-is an invention of the system.
-.PP
-This is so important, that even the “hardware” does this. Consider the disk.
-The interface used by the operating system to access the disk is usually
-a set of registers that permits transferring blocks of bytes from the disk to main
-memory and vice-versa. The system thinks that blocks are contiguous storage
-identified by an index, and therefore, it thinks that the disk is an array of
-blocks. However, this is far from being the truth. Running in the circuitry of
-a hard disk there is a plethora of software inventing this lie. These days,
-nobody (but for those working for the disk manufacturer) knows really what
-happens inside your disk. Many of them use complex geometries to achieve
-better performance. Most disks have also memory used to cache entire tracks.
-What old textbooks say about disks is no longer true. However, the
-operating system still works because it is using its familiar disk abstraction.
-.ix abstraction
-.ix "abstract data types
-.PP
-Using abstract data types instead of the raw hardware has another benefit:
-portability. If the hardware changes, but the data type you use remains the
-same, your program would still work. Did your programs using files still work
-when used on a different disk?
-.PP
-Note that the hardware may change either because you replace it with more modern
-one, or because you move your program to a different computer.
-Because both hardware and systems
-are made with
-.B backward-compatibility
-in mind, which means that they try hard to work for programs written for previous
-versions of the hardware or the system. Thus, it might even be unnecessary
-to recompile your program if the basic architecture remains the same. For
-instance, your Windows binaries would probably work in any PC you might find
-with this system. When they do not work, it is probably not because of the
-hardware, but due to other reasons (a missing library in the system or a bug).
-.PP
-This is the reason why operating systems are sometimes called (at least
-in textbooks) a
-.B "virtual machine" .
-.ix abstraction
-They provide a machine that does not exist, physically,
-hence it is virtual. The virtual machine
-provides files, processes, network connections, windows, and other artifacts
-unknown to the bare hardware.
-.PP
-With powerful computers like the ones we have today, most machines are
-capable of executing multiple programs simultaneously. The system makes
-it easy to keep these programs running, unaware of the underlying complexity
-resulting from sharing the machine among them.
-.PP
-Did you notice that it was
-natural for you to write and execute a program as if the computer was all
-for itself? However, I would say that at least an editor, a web browser, and
-perhaps a music player were executing at the same time. The system
-decides which parts of the machine, and at which times, are to be used
-by each program. That is, the system
-.I multiplexes
-the machine among different applications.
-The abstractions it provides try to isolate one executing
-program from another, so that you can write programs without having to
-consider all the things that happen inside your computer while they run.
-.PP
-Deciding which resources are used by which running programs, and administering them
-is called, not surprisingly,
-.I "resource management" .
-Therefore the operating system is also a
-.B "resource manager" .
-It assigns
-resources to programs, and multiplexes resources among programs.
-.PP
-Some resources
-must be
-.I "multiplexed on space" ,
-.ix "resource multiplexing
-i.e. different parts of the resource are given to different programs. For example,
-memory. Different programs use different parts of your computer's memory.
-However, other resources cannot be used by several programs at the same time.
-Think on the processor. It has a set of registers, but a compiled program is free
-to use any of them. What the system does is to assign the whole resource for
-a limited amount of time to a program, and then to another one in turn. In this case,
-the resource is
-.I "multiplexed on time" .
-Because
-machines are so fast, you get the illusion that all the programs work nicely as
-if the resource was always theirs.
-.PP
-People make mistakes, and programs have bugs. A bug in a program
-may bring the whole system down if the operating system does not take
-countermeasures. However, the system is not God, and magic does not
-.ix magic
-exist (or does it?). Most systems use hardware facilities to protect executing
-programs, and files, from accidents.
-.PP
-For example, one of the first things that
-the system does is to protect itself. The memory used to keep the system program
-is marked as
-.I privileged
-.ix "privileged mode
-and made untouchable by non-privileged software. The privilege-level is
-determined by a bit in the processor and some information given to the hardware.
-The system runs with this bit set, but your programs do not. This means that
-the system can read the memory used by your program, but not the other way around.
-Also, each program can read and write only its own memory (assigned to it by
-the system). This means that a misleading pointer in a buggy program would
-not affect other programs. Did you notice that when your programs crash the
-other programs seem to remain unaffected? Can you say why?
-.PP
-To summarize, the operating system is just some software that provides
-convenient abstractions to write programs without dealing with the underlying
-hardware by ourselves. To do so, it has to manage the different resources to
-assign them to different programs and to protect ones from others. In any case,
-the operating system is just a set of programs, nothing else.
-.BS 2 "Entering the system
-.ix "entering the~system
-.LP
-In this course you will be using Plan 9 from Bell Labs. There is a nice
-paper that describes the entire system in a few pages [2].
-All the programs shown in this book are written for this
-operating system.
-Before proceeding, you need to know how to enter the system, edit files and run
-commands. This will be necessary for the rest of this book. One word of caution,
-if you know UNIX, Plan 9 is not UNIX, you should forget what you assume about
-UNIX while using this system.
-.ix UNIX
-.PP
-In a Plan 9 system, you use a
-.B terminal
-to perform your tasks.
-The terminal is a machine that
-lets you execute commands by using the screen, mouse, and keyboard as
-input/output devices.
-See figure 1.1.
-A
-.B command
-is simply some text you type to ask for something.
-.ix command
-Most likely, you will be using a PC as your terminal.
-The
-.B "window system" ,
-the program that implements and draws the windows you see
-in the screen, runs at your terminal. The commands you
-execute, which are also programs, run at your terminal.
-Editing happens at your terminal. However,
-none of the files you are using are stored at your terminal. Your terminal's disk
-is not used at all. In fact, the machine might be diskless!
-.LS
-.PS
-.ps -2
-copy "9intro.pic"
-down
-T1: [ down
- B: xterm(0.5);
- box invis "Command execution," "Window system, ..."
-]
-line <-> dotted from T1.B.e down .7 right 1.5 "network"
-L : line <-> dotted left down .7 left 1.5 "network"
-T2: [ down
- B: xterm(0.5);
- box invis "Command execution," "Window system, ..."
-]
-[
- down
- B: tower(0.5)
- move .2
- box invis "Files," "Accounts, ..."
-] with .w at L.e
-.ps +2
-.PE
-.DS C
-\fBFigure 1.1:\fP Your terminal provides you with a window system. Your files are not there.
-.DE
-.LP
-There is one reason for doing this. Because your terminal does not keep state
-(i.e., data in your files), it can be replaced at will. If you move to a different terminal
-and start a session there, you will see the very same environment you saw at the
-old terminal. Because terminals do not keep state, they are called
-.B stateless .
-Another compelling reason is that the whole system is a lot easier to administer.
-For example, none of the terminals at the university had to be installed or customized
-to be used with Plan 9. There is nothing to install because there is no state to keep
-within the terminal, remember?
-.PP
-Your files are kept at another machine, called the
-.B "file server" .
-The reason for this name is that the machine
-.I serves
-(i.e., provides) files to other machines in the network. In general, in a network of
-computers (or programs) a server is a program that provides any kind of service (e.g.,
-file storage). Other programs order the server to perform operations on its files, for example,
-to store new files or retrieve data. These programs placing orders on the server are
-called
-.B clients .
-In general, a client sends a message to a server asking it to perform a certain task, and
-the server replies back to the client with the result for the operation.
-.PP
-To use Plan 9, you must switch on your terminal. Depending on the local installation, you
-may have to select PXE as the boot device (PXE is a facility that lets the computer
-.ix PXE
-.ix booting
-load the system from the network). But perhaps the terminal hardware has been
-configured to boot right from the network and you can save this step. Once the Plan 9
-operating system program (you know, the
-.I kernel )
-has been loaded into memory, the screen looks similar to this:
-.PP
-.P1
-.ps -1
-PBS...
-Plan 9
-cpu0: 1806MHz GenuineIntel P6 (cpuid: AX 0x06D8 DX 0xFE9FBBF)
-ELCR: 0E20
-#l0: AMD79C970: 10Mbps port 0x1080 irq 10: 000c292839fc
-#l1: AMD79C970: 10Mbps port 0x1400 irq 9: 000c29283906
-#U/usb0: uhci: port 0x1060 irq 9
-512M memory: 206M kernel data, 305M user, 930M swap
-root is from (local, tcp)[tcp]:
-.ps +1
-.P2
-.LP
-There are various messages that show some information about your terminal,
-including how much memory you have. Then, Plan 9 asks you where do you
-want to take your files from. To do so, it writes a
-.B prompt ,
-i.e., some text to let you know that a program is waiting for you to type something.
-In this prompt, you can see
-.CW tcp
-between square brackets. That is the default value used if you hit return without
-further typing.
-Replying
-.CW tcp
-to this prompt means to use the TCP network protocol
-to reach the files kept in the machine that provides them
-to your terminal (called, the file server).
-Usually, you just have to hit return at this stage. This leads to
-another prompt, asking you to introduce your user name.
-.PP
-You may obtain a user name
-.ix "user name
-by asking the administrator of the Plan 9 system to provide one for you (along with
-a password that you will have to specify). This is called opening an
-.B account .
-In this example we
-will type
-.CW nemo
-as the user name. What follows is the dialog with the machine to enter the system.
-.P1
-.ps -1
-user[none]: !!nemo
-time...version...
-!Adding key: dom=dat.escet.urjc.es proto=p9sk1
-user[nemo]: \fBReturn\fP
-password: \fItype your password here and press return\fP
-!
-.ps +1
-.P2
-.LP
-This dialog shows all conventions used in this book. Text written by the computer
-(the system, a program, ...) is in
-constant width font, like in
-.CW user[none] .
-Text you type is in a slightly slanted variant of the same font, like in
-.CW \S'15'nemo\S'0' .
-When the text you type is a special key not shown in the screen, we use
-boldface, like in
-.B Return .
-Any comment we make is in italics, like in
-.I "type your password" .
-Now we can go back to how do we enter the system.
-.PP
-At the
-.CW user
-prompt, you told your terminal who you are. Your terminal trusts you. Therefore,
-there is no need to give it a password. At this point you have an open account at
-your terminal!
-.ix "open account
-This is to say that you now have a program running on your name in the computer.
-By the way, entering the system is also called
-.B "logging into"
-.ix login
-the system. Leaving the system is called usually
-.B "loging out" .
-.ix logout
-.PP
-However,
-the file server needs some proof to get convinced that you are who you say you are.
-That is
-why you will get immediately two more prompts: one to ask your user name at the
-file server, and one to ask for your secret password for that account.
-Usually, the user name for your account in the file server is also that used in
-the terminal, so you may just hit return and type your password when prompted.
-.PP
-If you come from UNIX, be aware not to type your password immediately after you
-typed your user name for the first time. That would be the file server user name,
-and not the password. All your password would be in the clear in the screen for
-anyone to read.
-.PP
-You are in! If this is the first time you enter a Plan 9 system you have now the
-prompt of a system
-.I shell
-(after several error messages). A
-.B shell
-is a program that lets you execute
-commands in the computer. In Windows, the window system itself is the system
-shell. There is another shell in Windows, if you execute
-.CW "Run command"
-in the start menu
-you get a line of text where you can type commands. That is a
-.B "command line" .
-.PP
-At this point in your Plan 9 session, you can also type commands to the shell that
-is running for you. The shell is a program,
-.CW rc
-.ix [rc]
-in this case, that writes a prompt, reads a command (text) line, executes it, waits
-for the command to complete, and then repeats the whole thing.
-.PP
-The shell prompt may be
-.CW term% ,
-or perhaps just a semicolon (which is the prompt we use in this book). Because you
-never entered the system, and because your files are yours, nobody created a few
-files necessary to automatically start the window system when you enter the system.
-This is why you got some error messages complaining about some missing files. The
-only file created for you was a folder (we use the name
-.ix directory
-.I directory )
-where you can save your files. That directory is your
-.B "home directory" .
-.LS
-.BP rio.ps
-.DS C
-\fBFigure 1.2:\fP Your terminal after entering rio. Isn't it a clean window system?
-.DE
-.PP
-Proceeding is simple. If you execute
-.P1
-\S'15'; /sys/lib/newuser\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-the
-.CW newuser
-.ix [newuser]
-program will create
-a few files for you and start
-.CW rio ,
-.ix [rio]
-the Plan 9 window system. To run this command, type
-.CW /sys/lib/newuser
-and press return. All the commands are executed that way, you type them at the
-shell prompt and
-press return.
-.PP
-Running
-.CW newuser
-is only necessary the first time you enter the system. Once executed, this
-program creates for you a
-.CW profile
-.ix [profile]
-file that is executed when you enter the system, and starts
-.CW rio
-for you. The profile for the user
-.CW nemo
-is kept in the file
-.CW /usr/nemo/lib/profile .
-Users are encouraged to edit their profiles to add any command they want to
-execute upon entering the system, to customize the environment for their needs.
-To
-let you check if things went right, figure 1.2 shows your screen once rio started.
-.BS 2 "Leaving the system
-.ix "leaving the~system
-.LP
-To leave your terminal you have all you need. Press the terminal power button
-.ix "loging out
-.ix logout
-(don't look at the window system for it) and switch it off. Because the files
-are kept in the file server, any file you changed is already kept safe in the file server.
-Your terminal has nothing to save. You can switch it
-off at any time.
-.BS 2 "Editing and running commands
-.ix editing
-.ix "executing commands
-.LP
-The window system is a program that can be used to create windows. Initially, each window
-runs the Plan 9 shell, another program called
-.CW rc .
-To create a window you must press the right mouse button (button-3) and
-hold it. A menu appears and you can move the mouse (without releasing the
-.ix "window system
-.ix "[rio] menu
-.ix "mouse button
-button) to select a particular command. You can select
-.CW New
-(see figure 1.3) by releasing the mouse on top of that command.
-.PP
-Because
-.CW rio
-is now expecting one argument, the pointer is not shown as
-an arrow after executing
-.CW New ,
-.ix "[rio] commands
-.ix [New]
-.ix "new window"
-it is shown as a cross. The argument
-.CW rio
-requires is the rectangle where
-to show the window. To provide it, you press button-3, then sweep a
-rectangle in the screen (e.g., from the upper left corner to the bottom right one),
-and then release button-3. Now you have your shell.
-The other
-.CW rio
-commands are similar. They let you resize, move, delete, and hide
-.ix [Resize]
-.ix [Move]
-.ix [Delete]
-.ix [Hide]
-any window. All of them require that you identify which window is to be involved. That
-is done by a single button-3 click on the window. Some of them (e.g.,
-.CW Resize )
-require that you provide an additional rectangle (e.g., the new one to be used
-after the resize). This is done as we did before.
-.LS
-.BP new.ps
-.DS C
-\fBFigure 1.3:\fP The rio menu for mouse button-3.
-.DE
-.LP
-The window system uses the real display, keyboard, and mouse, to provide
-multiple (virtual) ones. A command running at a window thinks that it has the
-real display, keyboard, and mouse. That is far from being the truth! The window
-system is the one providing a fake set of display, keyboard, and mouse to programs
-running in that window. You see that a window system is simply a program that
-.I multiplexes
-the real user I/O devices to permit multiple programs to have their own virtual ones.
-.PP
-It will not happen in a while, but in the near future we will be typing many
-commands in a window. As commands write text in the window, it may fill up and
-reach the last (bottom) line in the window. At this point, the
-window will not scroll down to show more
-text unless you type the down arrow key, ↓,
-in the window. The up arrow key, ↑, can be used to scroll up the window.
-You can edit all the text in the window. However, commands may be typed only
-at the end. You can always use
-the mouse to click near the end and type new commands if you
-changed. The
-.I Delete
-key can be used to stop a command, should you want to do so.
-.PP
-To edit files, and also to run commands and most other things (hence its name),
-we use
-.CW acme ,
-a user interface for programmers developed by Rob Pike.
-.ix "Rob Pike
-.ix [acme]
-When you run acme in your new window it would look like shown in figure 1.4.
-Just type the command name,
-.ix [acme]
-in the new window (which has a shell accepting commands) and press return.
-.LS
-.ps -4
-.BP acme.ps
-.ps +4
-.DS C
-\fBFigure 1.4:\fP Acme: used to edit, browse system files, and run commands.
-.DE
-.PP
-As you can see, acme displays a set of windows using two columns initially. Acme is
-indeed a window system!
-.ix file editor
-Each window in acme shows a file, a folder, or the output of commands. In the figure,
-there is a single window showing the directory (remember, this is the name we use for folders)
-.CW /usr/nemo .
-For
-.I Nemo ,
-that is the
-.I "home directory" .
-As you can see, the horizontal text line above each window is called the
-.I "tag line"
-for the window.
-In the figure, the tag line for the window
-showing
-.CW /usr/nemo
-contains the following text:
-.P1
-/usr/nemo Del Snarf Get | Look
-.P2
-.LP
-Each tag line contains on the left
-the name of the file or directory shown. Some other words follow, which represent
-commands (buttons!). For example, our tag line shows the commands
-.CW Del ,
-.CW Snarf ,
-.CW Get ,
-and
-.CW Look .
-.PP
-Within acme, the mouse left mouse
-button (button-1) can be used to select a portion of text, or to
-change the insertion point (the tiny vertical bars) where text is to be inserted.
-All the text shown can be edited. If we click before
-.CW Look
-with the left button, do not move the mouse, and type
-.CW Could ,
-the tag line would now contain:
-.P1
-/usr/nemo Del Snarf Get | Could Look
-.P2
-.LP
-The button-1 can be also used to drag a window and move it somewhere else, to
-adjust its position. This is done by dragging the tiny square shown near the left of
-the tag line for the window. Resizing a window is done in the same way, but a single click
-with the middle button (button-2) in the square can maximize a window if you need more
-space. The shaded boxes near the top-left corner of each column can be used in the
-same way, to rearrange the layout for entire columns.
-.PP
-The middle button (button-2) is used in acme to execute commands. Those shown in the
-.ix "acme commands
-figure are understood by acme itself. For example, a click with the button-2 on
-.CW Del
-in our tag line would execute
-.CW Del
-(an acme command), and delete the window. Any text shown by acme can be used
-as a command. For commands acme does not implement,
-Plan 9 is asked to execute them.
-.PP
-Some commands understood by acme are
-.CW Del ,
-.ix [Del]
-to delete the window,
-.CW Snarf ,
-.ix [Snarf]
-to copy the selected text to the clipboard,
-.CW Get ,
-.ix [Get]
-to reread the file shown (and discard your edits), and
-.CW Put ,
-.ix [Put]
-to store your edits back to the file. Another useful command
-is
-.ix [Exit]
-.CW Exit ,
-to exit from acme.
-For example, to create a new file with some text in it:
-.IP 1
-Execute
-.CW Get
-with a button-2 click on that word. You get a new window (that has no file name).
-.IP 2
-Give a name to the file. Just click (button-1) near the left of the tag line for the new
-.ix tag line
-window and type the file name where it belongs.
-The file name typed on the left of the tag line is used
-for acme to identify which file the window is for.
-For example, we could type
-.CW /usr/nemo/newfile
-(you would replace
-.CW nemo
-with your own user name).
-.IP 3
-Point to the body of the window and type what you want.
-.IP 4
-Execute
-.CW Put
-in that window. The file (whose name is shown in the tag line) is saved.
-.LP
-You may notice that the window for
-.CW /usr/nemo
-is not showing the new file. Acme only does what you command, no more, no
-less. You may reload that window using
-.CW Get
-and the new file should appear.
-.PP
-The right button (button-3)
-is used to look for things. A click with the button on a file name would open
-that file in the editor. A click on a word would look for it (i.e., search for it) in
-the text shown in the window.
-.PP
-Keyboard input in acme goes to the window where the pointer is pointing at.
-To type at a tag line, you must place the pointer on it.
-To type at the body of a
-window, you must point to it. This is called “point to
-type”. Note that in rio things are different. Input goes to the window where you
-did click last. This is called “click to type”.
-.ix "point to~type
-.ix "click to~type
-.PP
-Although you can use acme to execute commands, we will be using a
-rio window for that in this book, to make it clear when you are executing
-commands and to emphasize that doing so has nothing to do with acme.
-.PP
-But to try it at least once, type
-.CW date
-.ix [date]
-anywhere in acme (e.g., in a tag line, or in the window showing your home
-directory. Then execute it (again, by a click with button-2 on it). You will see
-how the output of
-.CW date
-is shown in a new window. The new window will be called
-.CW /usr/nemo+Errors .
-Acmes creates windows with names terminated in
-.CW +Errors
-to
-display output for commands executed at the directory whose name precedes
-the
-.CW +Errors .
-In this case, to display output for commands executed at
-.CW /usr/nemo .
-If you do not know what “at”
-means in the last sentences, don't worry. Forget about it for a while.
-.PP
-There is a good description of
-.CW Acme
-in [3], although perhaps a little bit too detailed for us at this moment.
-It may be helpful to read it ignoring what you cannot understand, and get back
-to it later as we learn more things.
-.BS 2 "Obtaining help
-.ix help
-.LP
-Most systems include their manual on-line, for users to consult. Plan 9 is not
-an exception. The Plan 9 manual is available in several forms. From the web,
-you can consult
-.ix manual
-.CW http://plan9.bell-labs.com/sys/man
-for a web version of the manual. At Rey Juan Carlos University, we suggest you
-use
-.CW http://plan9.lsub.org/sys/man
-instead, which is our local copy.
-.PP
-And there is even more help available in the system! The directory
-.CW /sys/doc ,
-also available at
-.CW http://plan9.bell-labs.com/sys/doc ,
-contains a copy of most of the papers relevant for the system. We will mention several
-of them in this book. And now you know where to find them.
-.PP
-The manual is divided in sections. Each manual page belongs to a particular
-section depending on its topic. For us, it suffices to know that section 1
-is for commands, section 8 is for commands not commonly used by users
-(i.e., they are intended to administer the system), and section 2 is for C
-functions and libraries. To refer to a manual page,
-we use the name of the page followed by the section between parenthesis, as in
-.I acme (1).
-This page refers to a command, because the section is 1, and the name for the
-page (i.e., the name of the command) is
-.CW acme .
-.PP
-From the shell, you can use the
-.CW man
-.ix [man]
-command to access the system manual.
-If you don't know how to use it, here is how you can learn to do it.
-.P1
-\S'15'; man man\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-Asks the manual to give its own manual page.
-.P1
-.ps -2
-\S'15'; man man\S'0'
- MAN(1) Plan 9 — 4th edition MAN(1)
- NAME
- man, lookman, sig - print or find pages of this manual
- SYNOPSIS
- man [ -bnpPStw ] [ section ... ] title ...
- lookman key ...
- sig function ...
- DESCRIPTION
- Man locates and prints pages of this manual named title in
- the specified sections. Title is given in lower case. Each
- ....
-.ps +2
-.P2
-.LP
-As you can see, you can give to
-.CW man
-the name of the program or library function you are interested in. It displays
-a page with useful information. If you are doing this in the shell, you can use
-the down arrow key, “↓”, to page down the output.
-To read a manual page found at a particular section, you can type the section
-number and the page name after the
-.CW man
-command, like in
-.P1
-\S'15'; man 1 ls\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-If you look at the manual page shown above, you can see several sections.
-The
-.I synopsis
-section of a manual page is a brief indication on how to use the program (or
-how to call the function if the page is for a C library). This is useful once you know
-what the program does, to avoid re-reading the page again. In
-the synopsis for commands, words following the command name are
-arguments.
-.ix "command argument
-The words between
-square brackets are optional. They are called options.
-.ix "command option
-Any option starting with “\f(CW-\fP” represents individual
-characters that may be given as
-.I flags
-.ix "command flag
-to change the program behavior. So, in our last example,
-.CW 1
-and
-.CW ls
-are
-.I options
-for
-.CW man ,
-corresponding to
-.I section
-and
-.I title
-in the synopsis of
-.I man (1).
-.PP
-The
-.I description
-section explains all you need to know to use the program (or the C functions).
-It is suggested to
-read the manual page for commands the first time you use them. Even if
-someone told you how to use the command. This will always help in the future, when
-you may need to use the same program in a slightly different way. The same
-happens for C functions.
-.PP
-The
-.I source
-section tells you where to find the source code for programs and libraries. It
-will be of great value for you to read as much source as you can from this system.
-Programming is an art, and the authors of this system dominate that art well.
-The best way for you to quickly become an artist yourself is to study the works
-of the best ones. This is a good opportunity.
-.PP
-From time to time you will imagine that there must be a system command to do
-something, or a library function. To search for it, you may use
-.CW lookman ,
-.ix [lookman]
-as the portion of
-.I man (1)
-reproduced before shows. Using
-.CW lookman
-is to the manual what using search engines (e.g.,
-Google) is to the Web. You don't know how to use
-the manual if you don't know how to search it well.
-.PP
-Another command that comes with the manual is
-.CW sig .
-.ix [sig]
-It displays the
-.I signature ,
-i.e., the prototype for a C function documented in section 2 of the manual.
-That is very useful to get a quick reminder of which arguments receives
-a system function, and what does it return. For example,
-.P1
-\S'15'; sig chdir\S'0'
- int chdir(char *dirname)
-.P2
-.LP
-When a new command or function appears in this book, it may be of help
-for you to take a look at its manual page. For example,
-.I intro (1)
-is a kind introduction to Plan 9. The manual page
-.I rio (1)
-describes how to use the window system. The meaning of all the commands in
-.CW rio
-menus can be found there. In the same way,
-.I acme (1)
-describes how to use
-.CW acme ,
-and
-.I rc (1)
-describes the shell,
-.CW rc .
-.PP
-If some portions of the manual pages seem hard to understand, you might
-ignore them for the time being. This may happen for some time while you
-learn more about the system, and about operating systems in general.
-After completing this course, you should have no problem to understand anything
-said in a manual page. Just ignore the obscure parts and try to learn from the
-parts you understand. You can always get back to a manual page once you
-have the concepts needed to understand what it says.
-.BS 2 "Using files
-.ix "using files
-.LP
-Before proceeding to write programs and use the system, it is useful for you
-to know how to use the shell to see which files you created, search for them,
-rename, and remove them, etc.
-.PP
-When you open a window,
-.CW rio
-starts a shell on it. You can type commands
-to it, as you already know. For example, to execute
-.CW date
-.ix [date]
-from the shell we can simple type the command name and press return:
-.P1
-\S'15'; date\S'0'
-Sat Jul 8 01:13:54 MDT 2006
-.P2
-.LP
-In what follows, we do not remind you to press return after typing a command.
-.ix "typing~a command
-Now we will use the shell in a window to
-play a bit with files. You can list files using
-.CW ls :
-.ix [ls]
-.P1
-\S'15'; ls\S'0'
-bin
-lib
-tmp
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-There is another command,
-.CW lc
-(list in columns),
-that arranges the output in multiple columns, but is otherwise the same:
-.P1
-\S'15'; lc\S'0'
-bin lib tmp
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-If you want to type several commands in the same line, you can do so by
-.ix "compound command
-separating them with a semicolon. The only “\f(CW;\fP” we typed here
-is the one between
-.CW date
-and
-.CW lc .
-The other ones are the shell prompt:
-.P1
-\S'15'; date ; lc\S'0'
-Sat Jul 8 01:18:54 MDT 2006
-bin lib tmp
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-Another convenience is that if a command is getting too long, we can type
-a backslash and then continue in the next line. When the shell sees the
-backslash character, it ignores the start of a new line and pretends that you
-typed a space instead of pressing return.
-.P1
-\S'15'; date ; \e\S'0'
-\S'15';; date ; \e\S'0'
-\S'15';; date\S'0'
-Sat Jul 8 01:19:54 MDT 2006
-Sat Jul 8 01:19:54 MDT 2006
-Sat Jul 8 01:19:54 MDT 2006
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-The double semicolon that we get after typing the backslash and pressing return
-is printed by the shell, to prompt for the continuation of the previous line (prompts
-might differ in your system).
-By the way,
-backslash,
-.CW \e ,
-is called an
-.B "escape character"
-because it can be used to escape from the special meaning that other
-characters have (e.g., to escape from the character that starts a new line).
-.PP
-We can create a file by using acme, as you know. To create an empty file,
-we can use
-.CW touch ,
-.ix [touch]
-and then
-.CW lc
-to see our outcome.
-.P1
-\S'15'; touch hello\S'0'
-\S'15'; lc\S'0'
-bin hello lib tmp
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-The
-.CW lc
-command was not necessary, of course. But that lets you see the outcome of
-executing
-.CW touch .
-In the following examples, we will be doing the same to show what happens after
-executing other commands.
-.PP
-Here, we gave an
-.B argument
-to the
-.CW touch
-command:
-.CW hello .
-Like functions in C, commands accept arguments to give “parameters” to
-them. Command arguments are just strings.
-When you type a command line, the shell breaks it into words separated by
-white space (spaces and tabs). The first word identifies the command, and
-the following ones are the arguments.
-.ix "command argument
-.PP
-We can ask
-.CW ls
-to give a lot of information about
-.CW hello .
-But first, lets list just that file.
-As you see,
-.CW ls
-lists the files you give as arguments. Only if you don't supply a file name, all files
-are listed.
-.P1
-\S'15'; ls hello\S'0'
-hello
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-We can see the size of the file we created giving an
-.B option
-to
-.CW ls .
-An option is an argument that is used to change the default behavior of
-the command. Some options specify certain
-.B flags
-to adjust what the command does. Options that specify
-flags always start with a dash sign, “\f(CW-\fP”.
-The option
-.CW -s
-.ix "[ls] flag~[-s]
-.ix "file size
-of
-.CW ls
-can be used to print the size along with the file name:
-.P1
-\S'15'; ls -s hello\S'0'
-0 hello
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-.CW Touch
-created an empty file, therefore its size is zero.
-.PP
-You will be creating files using acme. Nevertheless, you may want to copy
-an important file so that you don't loose it by accidents. We can use
-.CW cp
-to copy files:
-.ix "file copy
-.ix [cp]
-.P1
-\S'15'; cp hello goodbye\S'0'
-\S'15'; lc\S'0'
-bin goodbye hello lib tmp
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-We can now get rid of
-.CW hello
-and remove it, to clean things up.
-.ix "file remove"
-.ix [rm]
-.P1
-\S'15'; rm hello\S'0'
-\S'15'; lc\S'0'
-bin goodbye lib tmp
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-Many commands that accept a file name as an argument also
-accept multiple ones.
-In this case, they do what they know how to do to all the files given:
-.P1
-\S'15'; lc\S'0'
-bin goodbye lib tmp
-\S'15'; touch mary had a little lamb\S'0'
-\S'15'; lc\S'0'
-a goodbye lamb little tmp
-bin had lib mary
-\S'15'; rm little mary had a lamb\S'0'
-\S'15'; lc\S'0'
-bin goodbye lib tmp
-.P2
-.LP
-Was
-.CW rm
-very smart? No. For
-.CW rm ,
-the names you gave in the command line were just names for files to be removed.
-It did just that.
-.PP
-A related command lets you rename a file. For example, we can rename
-.CW goodbye
-to
-.CW hello
-again by using
-.CW mv
-(move):
-.P1
-\S'15'; mv goodbye GoodBye\S'0'
-\S'15'; lc\S'0'
-GoodBye bin lib tmp
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-Let's remove the new file.
-.P1
-\S'15'; rm goodbye\S'0'
-rm: goodbye: 'goodbye' file does not exist
-.P2
-.LP
-What? we can see it! What happens is that file names are case sensitive. This
-means that
-.CW GoodBye ,
-.CW goodbye ,
-and
-.CW GOODBYE
-are entirely different names. Because
-.CW rm
-could not find the file to be removed, it printed a message to tell you. We should
-have said
-.P1
-\S'15'; rm GoodBye\S'0'
-\S'15'; lc\S'0'
-bin lib tmp
-.P2
-.LP
-In general, when a command can do its job, it prints nothing. If it completes
-and does not complaint by printing a diagnostic message, then we know that
-.ix "command diagnostic
-it could do its job.
-.PP
-Some times, we may want to remove a file and ignore any errors. For example,
-we might want to be sure that there is no file named
-.CW goodbye ,
-and would not want to see complaints from
-.CW rm
-when the file does not exist (and therefore cannot be removed). Flag
-.CW -f
-.ix "[rm] flag~[-f]
-for
-.CW rm
-achieves this effect.
-.P1
-\S'15'; rm goodbye\S'0'
-rm: goodbye: 'goodbye' file does not exist
-\S'15'; rm -f goodbye\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-Both command lines achieve the same effect. Only that the second one is
-silent.
-.BS 2 "Directories
-.LP
-As it happens in Windows and most other systems, Plan 9 has
-.I folders .
-But it uses the more venerable name
-.B directory
-.ix directory
-.ix "file name
-for that concept. A directory keeps several files together, so that you can
-group them. Two files in two different directories are two different files. This seems
-natural. It doesn't matter if the files have the same name. If they are at
-different directories, they are different.
-.LS
-.PS
-circlerad=.2
-movewid=.2
-.CW
-down
-S: circle invis "/"
-move
-L: [ right
- A: circle invis "386"
- move
- B: circle invis "usr"
- move
- C: circle invis "tmp"
-]
-move
-U: [ right
- A: circle invis "nemo"
- move
- B: circle invis "glenda"
- move
- C: circle invis "mero"
-]
-line from S to L.A chop
-line from S to L.B chop
-line from S to L.C chop
-line from L.B to U.A chop
-line from L.B to U.B chop
-line from L.B to U.C chop
-line from U.A.s down
-F: [ right
- A: circle invis "bin"
- move
- B: circle invis "lib"
- move
- C: circle invis "tmp"
-]
-line from U.A to F.A chop
-line from U.A to F.C chop
-.R
-reset circlerad, movewid
-.PE
-.DS C
-\fBFigure 1.5:\fP Some files that user Nemo can find in the system.
-.DE
-.LP
-Directories may contain other directories. Therefore, files are arranged in a tree.
-.ix "file tree
-Indeed, directories are also files. A directory is a file that
-contains information about which files are
-bounded together in it, but that's a file anyway. This means that the file tree has
-only files. Of course, many of them would be directories, and might contain other
-files.
-.PP
-Figure 1.5 shows a part of the file tree in the system, relevant for user Nemo. You
-see now that the files
-.CW bin ,
-.CW lib ,
-and
-.CW tmp
-files that we saw in some of the examples above are kept within a directory called
-.CW nemo .
-To identify a file, you name the files in the path from the root of the tree (called
-.B slash )
-to the file itself, separating each name with a slash,
-.CW / ,
-character. This is called a
-.B path .
-For example, the path for the file
-.CW lib
-shown in the figure would be
-.CW /usr/nemo/lib .
-Note how
-.CW /tmp
-and
-.CW /usr/nemo/tmp
-are different files, depite using the name
-.CW tmp
-in both cases.
-.PP
-The first directory at the top of the tree, the one which contains everything else,
-is called the
-.B "root directory"
-(guess why?). It is named with a single slash,
-.CW / .
-.P1
-\S'15'; ls /\S'0'
-386
-usr
-tmp
-.I "...other files omitted...
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-That is the only file whose name may have a slash
-on it. If we allowed using the slash within a file name, the system would get
-confused, because it would not know if the slash is part of a name, or is
-separating different file names in a path.
-.PP
-Typing paths all the time, for each file we use, would be a burden. To make things
-easier for you,
-each program executing in the system has a directory associated to it. It is said that
-the
-program is working in that directory. Such directory
-is called the
-.B "current directory"
-for the program, or the
-.I working
-directory for the program.
-.PP
-When a
-program uses file names that are paths not starting with
-.CW / ,
-these paths are walked in the tree relative to its current directory.
-For example, the shell we have been using in the previous examples had
-.CW /usr/nemo
-as its current directory. Therefore, all file names we used were relative to
-.CW /usr/nemo .
-This means that when we used
-.CW goodbye ,
-we were actually referring to the file
-.CW /usr/nemo/goodbye .
-Such paths are called
-.B "relative paths" .
-By the way, paths starting with a slash, i.e., from the root directory, are called
-.B "absolute paths" .
-.PP
-Another important directory is
-.CW /usr/nemo ,
-it is called the
-.I home
-.ix "home directory
-directory for the user Nemo. The reason for this name is that Nemo's files are kept within
-that directory, and because the shell started by the system when Nemo logs in
-(the one that usually runs the window system), is using that directory initially as its current
-directory. That is the reason why all the (shells running at) windows we open in
-.CW rio
-have
-.CW /usr/nemo
-as their initial current directory. What follows is a simple way to know which users have
-accounts in the system:
-.P1
-\S'15'; lc /usr\S'0'
-esoriano glenda nemo mero paurea
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-There is an special file name for the current directory, a single dot: “\f(CW.\fP".
-.ix "dot directory
-Therefore, we can do two things to list the current directory in a shell
-.P1
-\S'15'; lc\S'0'
-bin lib tmp
-\S'15'; lc .\S'0'
-bin lib tmp
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-Note the dot given as the file to list to the second command. When
-.CW ls
-or
-.CW lc
-are not given a directory name to list, they list the current directory. Therefore, both
-commands print the same output. Another special name is “\f(CW..\fP”, called
-dot-dot. It
-.ix "dot-dot directory
-refers the parent directory. That is, it walks up one element in the file tree. For example,
-.CW /usr/nemo/..
-is
-.CW /usr ,
-and
-.CW /usr/nemo/../..
-is simply
-.CW / .
-.PP
-To change the current directory in the shell, we can use the
-.CW cd
-.ix [cd]
-.ix "change current directory
-(change dir) command. If we give no argument to
-.CW cd ,
-it changes to our home directory. To know our current working directory, the
-command
-.CW pwd
-(print working directory)
-.ix [pwd]
-.ix "print current directory
-can be used. Let's move around and see where we are:
-.P1
-\S'15'; cd\S'0'
-\S'15'; pwd\S'0'
-/usr/nemo
-\S'15'; cd / ; pwd\S'0'
-/
-\S'15'; cd usr/nemo/lib ; pwd\S'0'
-/usr/nemo/lib
-\S'15'; cd ../.. ; pwd\S'0'
-/usr
-.P2
-.LP
-This command does nothing. Can you say why?
-.P1
-\S'15'; cd .\S'0'
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-Now we know which one is the current working directory for commands we
-execute. But,
-which one would be the working directory for a command executed using
-.CW acme ?
-It depends. When you execute a command in
-.CW acme ,
-its working directory is set to be that shown in the window (or containing the
-file shown in the window). So, the command we executed time ago in
-the
-.CW acme
-window for
-.CW /usr/nemo
-had
-.CW /usr/nemo
-as its working directory. If we execute a command in the window for a file
-.CW /usr/nemo/newfile ,
-its working directory would be also
-.CW /usr/nemo .
-.LP
-Directories can be created with
-.CW mkdir
-(make directory),
-.ix [mkdir]
-and because they are files, they can be also removed with
-.CW rm .
-.ix [rm]
-Although,
-because it may be dangerous,
-.CW rm
-refuses to remove a directory that is not empty.
-.P1
-\S'15'; cd\S'0'
-\S'15'; mkdir dir\S'0'
-\S'15'; lc\S'0'
-bin dir lib tmp
-\S'15'; rm dir\S'0'
-\S'15'; lc\S'0'
-bin lib tmp
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-The command
-.CW mv ,
-.ix [mv]
-that we saw before, can move files from one directory to another. Hence its name.
-When the source and destination files are within the same directory,
-.CW mv
-simply renames the file (i.e., changes the name for the file in the directory).
-.ix "file rename
-.ix "file move
-.P1
-\S'15'; touch a\S'0'
-\S'15'; lc\S'0'
-a bin lib tmp
-\S'15'; mkdir dir\S'0'
-\S'15'; lc\S'0'
-a bin dir lib tmp
-\S'15'; mv a dir/b\S'0'
-\S'15'; lc\S'0'
-bin dir lib tmp
-\S'15'; lc dir\S'0'
-b
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-Now we have a problem,
-.CW ls
-can be used to list a lot of information about a file. For example, flag
-.CW -m
-.ix "[ls] flag~[-m]
-.ix "file who~last~modified
-asks
-.CW ls
-to print the name of the user who last modified a file, along with the file name.
-Suppose we want to know who was the last user who created or removed a file
-at
-.CW dir .
-We might do this, but the output is not what we could perhaps expect:
-.P1
-\S'15'; ls -m dir\S'0'
-[nemo] dir/b
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-The output refers to file
-.CW b ,
-and not to
-.CW dir ,
-which was the file we were interested in. The problem is that
-.CW ls ,
-when given a directory name, lists its contents. Option
-.CW -d
-.ix "[ls] flag~[-d]
-asks
-.CW ls
-not to list the contents, but the precise file we named:
-.P1
-\S'15'; ls -md dir\S'0'
-[nemo] dir
-.P2
-.LP
-Like other commands,
-.CW cp
-.ix [cp]
-works with more than one file at a time. It
-accepts more than one (source) file name to copy to the destination file name.
-In this case it is clear that the destination must be a directory, because it would
-make no sense to copy multiple files to a single one. This copies the two
-files named to the current directory:
-.P1
-\S'15'; cp /LICENSE /NOTICE .\S'0'
-\S'15'; lc\S'0'
-LICENSE NOTICE bin dir lib tmp
-.P2
-.BS 2 "Files and data
-.ix data
-.LP
-Like in most other systems,
-in Plan 9, files contain bytes. Plan 9 does not know (nor cares) about
-.ix "file content
-what is in a file. It just provides the means to let you create, remove, read,
-and write files. If you store a notice in a file, it is you who knows that it is a notice.
-For Plan 9, that is just bytes. We can use
-.CW cat
-(catenate)
-.ix [cat]
-.ix "file display
-to display what is in a file:
-.P1
-\S'15'; cat /NOTICE\S'0'
-Copyright © 2002 Lucent Technologies Inc.
-All Rights Reserved
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-This program reads the files you name and prints their contents. Of course, if
-you name just one, it prints just its content. If you
-.CW cat
-a very long file in a Plan 9 terminal, beware that you might have to press the down
-arrow key in your keyboard to let the terminal scroll down.
-.PP
-What is stored at
-.CW /NOTICE ?
-We can see a dump of the bytes kept within that file using the program
-.CW xd
-.ix [xd]
-.ix "file hexadecimal dump
-(hexadecimal dump). This program reads a file and writes its contents so that
-it is easy for us to read. Option
-.CW -b
-asks
-.CW xd
-to print the contents as a series of bytes:
-.P1
-\S'15'; xd -b /NOTICE\S'0'
-0000000 43 6f 70 79 72 69 67 68 74 20 c2 a9 20 32 30 30
-0000010 32 20 4c 75 63 65 6e 74 20 54 65 63 68 6e 6f 6c
-0000020 6f 67 69 65 73 20 49 6e 63 2e 0a 41 6c 6c 20 52
-0000030 69 67 68 74 73 20 52 65 73 65 72 76 65 64 0a
-000003f
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-The first column in the program output shows the
-offset (the position)
-.ix offset
-in the file where the bytes printed on the right can be found. This offset is
-in hexadecimal (we write hexadecimal numbers starting with
-.I 0x ,
-as done in C). For example, the byte at position 0x10, which is the byte at position
-16 (decimal) has the value 0x32. This is the 17th byte! The first byte is at position zero,
-which makes arithmetic simpler when dealing with offsets.
-.PP
-So, why does
-.CW cat
-display text? It's all numbers.
-The program
-.CW cat
-reads bytes, and writes them to its output. Its output is the terminal in this case,
-and the terminal assumes that everything it shows is just text. The text is represented
-using a binary codification known as UTF-8. This format encodes
-.ix UTF8
-.ix rune
-.I runes
-(i.e, characters, kanjis, and other glyphs) as a sequence of bytes.
-For most of the characters we
-use, UTF-8 uses exactly the same format used by ASCII (another
-standard that codifies each character using a
-single byte). The program implementing the terminal (the window) decodes UTF-8
-to obtain the runes to display, and renders them on the screen.
-.PP
-We can ask
-.CW xd
-to do the same for the file contents. Adding option
-.CW -c ,
-the program prints the character for each byte when feasible:
-.P1
-\S'15'; xd -b -c /NOTICE\S'0'
-0000000 43 6f 70 79 72 69 67 68 74 20 c2 a9 20 32 30 30
- 0 C o p y r i g h t c2 a9 2 0 0
-0000010 32 20 4c 75 63 65 6e 74 20 54 65 63 68 6e 6f 6c
- 10 2 L u c e n t T e c h n o l
-0000020 6f 67 69 65 73 20 49 6e 63 2e 0a 41 6c 6c 20 52
- 20 o g i e s I n c . \en A l l R
-0000030 69 67 68 74 73 20 52 65 73 65 72 76 65 64 0a
- 30 i g h t s R e s e r v e d \en
-000003f
-.P2
-.LP
-Here we see how the value 0x43 represents the character “C”.
-If you look after the text
-.CW Copyright ,
-you see 0xc2 0xa9, which is the UTF-8 representation for the “©” sign. This
-program does not know and all it can do is print the byte values.
-.PP
-Another interesting thing is shown near the end of each line in the file. After the text
-in the first line, we see a “\f(CW\en\fP”. That is a byte with value 0x0a.
-The same happens at the end of the second
-line (the last line in the file). The syntax “\f(CW\en\fP”
-is used to represent
-.ix "new-line character
-.I control
-characters, i.e., characters not to be printed as text. The character
-.CW \en
-is just a 0x0a
-byte stored in the file, but
-.CW xd
-printed it as
-.CW \en
-to let us recognize it. This syntax is understood by many programs, like for
-example the C compiler, which admits it to embed control characters in strings
-(like in \f(CW"hello\en"\fP).
-.PP
-Control characters have
-.ix "control character
-meaning for many programs. That is way they
-.I seem
-to do things (but of course they do not!). For example, “\f(CW\en\fP” is the
-.I "new-line
-character. It can be generated using the keyboard by pressing the
-.I Return
-key. When printed, it causes the current line to terminate and the
-following text will be printed starting at the left of the next line.
-.PP
-If you compare the output of
-.CW xd
-and the output of
-.CW cat
-you will see how each one of the two lines in
-.CW /NOTICE
-terminates with an
-.I "end of line
-character that is precisely
-.CW \en .
-That is the convention in Plan 9 (and UNIX). The new line character terminates a line
-.ix UNIX
-only because programs in Plan 9 (and UNIX) follow the convention that lines terminate
-with a
-.CW \en
-character. The terminal shows a new line when it finds a
-.CW \en ,
-programs that read files a line at a time decide that they get a line when a
-.CW \en
-character is found, etc. It is just a convention.
-.PP
-Windows (and its predecessor MSDOS)
-use a different format to
-encode text lines, and terminates each line with two characters: “\f(CW\er\en\fP”
-(or
-.I carriage-return ,
-.ix "carriage-return character
-and
-.I new-line ).
-This comes from the times when computers used a tele-typewriter (tty) machine for
-console output. The former character,
-.CW \er ,
-makes the carriage in the typewriter
-return to its left position. We have to admit, there are no
-typewriters anymore. But the character
-.CW \er
-makes the following text appear on the left of the line. The
-.CW \en
-character advances the carriage (sic) to the
-next line. That is why
-.CW \en
-is also known as the
-.I line-feed
-character.
-.ix "line-feed character
-A consequence is that if you display in Plan 9 a Windows text file, you will
-see one little control character at the end of each line:
-.P1
-\S'15'; cat windowstext\S'0'
-This is one line␣
-and this is another␣
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-That is the
-.CW \er .
-Going the other way around, and displaying in Windows
-a text typed in Plan 9, may produce this output
-.P1
-This is one line
- and this is another
-.P2
-.LP
-because Windows misses the carriage-return character.
-.PP
-Now that we can see the actual contents of a file, there is another interesting
-thing to note. There is no EOF (end of file) character! Such thing is an invention
-.ix EOF
-.ix "end of~file
-of some programming languages. For Plan 9, the file terminates right after the last
-byte that has been stored on it.
-.PP
-Another interesting control character is the
-.I tabulator ,
-generated pressing the
-.I Tab
-key in the keyboard.
-It is used in text files to cause editors and terminals to advance the
-text following the tabulator character to the next
-.I tab-stop .
-On typewriters (sorry once more), the carriage could be quickly advanced
-to particular columns (called tab-stops) by hitting a
-.I Tab
-.ix [Tab]
-key. This control character achieves the same effect. Of course, there is no
-carriage any more and
-.I Tab
-advances to, say, the next column that is a multiple of 8 (column 8, 16, etc.). This
-value is called the
-.I tab-width .
-.ix "tab wdith" .
-The file
-.CW scores
-contains several tabs.
-.P1
-\S'15'; cat scores\S'0'
-Real Madrid 1
-Barcelona 0
-\S'15'; xd -c scores\S'0'
-0000000 R e a l M a d r i d \et 1 \en B a
-0000010 r c e l o n a \et 0 \en
-000001a
-.P2
-.LP
-Note how in the output for
-.CW cat ,
-the terminal tabulates the scores to form a column after the names. The number
-.CW 0
-is shown right below the number
-.CW 1 .
-However, the output from
-.CW xd
-reveals that there are no spaces after
-.CW Madrid
-and
-.CW Barcelona .
-Following each name, there is a single
-.CW \et
-character, which is the notation for
-.I Tab .
-In general,
-.CW \et
-is used to tabulate data and to indent source code. The appearance of the
-output text depends on the tab width used by the editor or the terminal
-(which was 8 characters in our case). The net effect is that it is a bad idea to
-mix spaces and tabs to indent code or tabulate data. Depending on the editor,
-a single tab may displace the following text 8, 4, 2, or any other number of
-characters (it depends on where the editor considers the tab stop to be).
-.PP
-The point is that characters like
-.CW \en ,
-.CW \er ,
-and
-.CW \et
-are control characters, with special meaning, just because there are programs
-that use them to represent actions and not to represent literal text. Table
-1.1 shows some usual control characters and their meaning.
-.LS
-.TS
-center box;
-cfB cfB cfB cfB
-_ _ _ _
-l lfCW lfI l.
-Byte value Character Keyboard Description
-04 control-d end of transmission (EOT)
-08 \eb Backspace remove previous character
-09 \et Tab horizontal tabulation
-0a \en Return line feed
-0d \er carriage return
-1b Esc escape
-.TE
-.DS C
-\fBTable 1.1:\fP Some control characters understood by most systems and programs.
-.DE
-.PP
-The table shows the usual escape syntax (a backslash and a character) used by
-most programs to represent control characters (including the C compiler), and how
-to generate the characters using the keyboard. Not all the control characters are
-shown and not all the cells in the table contain information. We included just what
-you should know to avoid discomfort while using the system.
-.PP
-To summarize,
-.ix "data meaning~of
-files contain just data that has no meaning per-se. Only programs and users
-give meaning to data. This is what you could see here.
-.BS 2 "Permissions
-.LP
-Each file in Plan 9 can be secured to provide some privacy and restrict what
-.ix privacy
-.ix "file permissions
-people can do with the file. The security mechanism to control access to files
-is called an
-.B "access control list" .
-This is like the list given to security guards to let them know who are allowed
-to get into a party and what are they allowed to do inside.
-In this case, the system is the security guard, and it
-keeps an access control list (or ACL) for each file. To be more precise, the program
-that keeps the files, i.e., the file server, keeps an ACL for each file.
-.PP
-The ACL for a file describes if the file can be read, can be written, and can be executed.
-Who can be allowed by the ACL to do such things? The file server keeps a list
-of user names. You had to give your user name to log into the system and access
-your files in the file server.
-Depending on your user name, you may be allowed or not to read, write, and
-execute a particular file. It depends on what the file's ACL says.
-.PP
-Because it would be
-too inconvenient to list these permissions for all the users in the ACL for each file,
-a more compact representation is used. Each file belongs to a user, the one who
-created it. And each user is entitled to a
-.ix "file ownership
-.B group
-of users. The ACL lists read, write, and execute permissions for the owner of the file,
-for any other user in the group of users, and for the rest of the world. That is just
-nine permissions instead of a potentially very long list.
-.PP
-In the file server, each user account can be used as a group. This means that
-.ix account
-your user name is also a group name. The group that contains just you as the
-only member. This is the output of
-.CW ls
-when called to print long listing for a file. It list permissions and ownership for the file:
-.P1
-\S'15'; cd\S'0'
-\S'15'; ls -l lib/profile\S'0'
---rwxrwxr-x M 19 nemo nemo 1024 May 30 16:31 lib/profile
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-You see a user name listed twice. The first name is the owner for
-the file. It is
-.CW nemo
-in this case. The second name is the user group for the file, which is also
-.CW nemo
-in this case. This group contains a single user,
-.CW nemo .
-.PP
-The initial “\f(CW-\fP” printed by
-.CW ls
-indicates that the file is a not a directory.
-For directories, a “\f(CWd\fP” would be printed instead. The following characters
-show the ACL for the file, i.e., its permissions.
-.PP
-There are three groups of
-.CW rwx
-permissions, each one determining if the file can be read (\f(CWr\fP),
-written (\f(CWw\fP) and executed (\f(CWx\fP). The first
-.CW rwx
-group refers to the owner
-of the file. For example, if \f(CWr\fP is set on it, the owner of the file can read the file.
-As you see for
-.CW lib/profile ,
-.CW nemo
-(its owner) can read, write, and execute this file.
-.PP
-The second
-.CW rwx
-group determines permissions applied to any other user who belongs to the group
-for the file. In this case the group is also
-.CW nemo ,
-which contains just this user. The last
-.CW rwx
-group sets permissions applied to any other user. For example,
-.CW esoriano
-can read and execute this file, but he cannot write it. The permissions for him
-(not the owner, and not in the group) are
-.CW r-x ,
-which mean this.
-.PP
-Because it does not makes sense to grant the owner of a file less permissions
-than to others, the file owner has a particular permission if it is enabled for
-the owner, the group, or for the others. The same applies for members of the
-group. They have permission when either
-permissions for the group or permissions for others
-grant access.
-.PP
-In general, read permission means permission to
-.I access
-the file to consult its contents. Write permission means permission to modify the
-file. This includes not just writing the file, but also truncating it. Execute permission
-means the right to ask a Plan 9 kernel to execute the file. Any file with execution
-.ix "executable file
-permission is an executable file in Plan 9.
-.PP
-For directories, the meaning of the permissions is different. For a directory, read
-.ix "directory permissions
-permission means permission to
-.I list
-the directory. Because the directory has to be read to list its contents. Write
-permission means permission to
-.I create
-and
-.I remove
-files in the directory. These operations require writing the directory contents.
-Execute permission means the right to enter, i.e., to
-.CW cd
-into it.
-.PP
-When there is a project involving several users, it is convenient to create a directory
-for the files of the project and to create a group of users for that project. All files
-created in that directory will be entitled to the group of users that the directory
-is entitled to. For example, this directory keeps documents for a project called
-.I "Plan B" :
-.P1
-\S'15'; ls -ld docs\S'0'
-d-rwxrwxr-x M 19 nemo planb 0 Jul 9 21:28 docs
-.P2
-.LP
-If we create a file in that directory, permissions get reasonable:
-.P1
-\S'15'; cd docs\S'0'
-\S'15'; touch memo\S'0'
-\S'15'; ls -l memo\S'0'
---rw-rw-r-- M 19 nemo planb 0 Jul 9 21:30 memo
-.P2
-.LP
-The group for the new file is
-.CW planb ,
-because the group for the directory was that one. The file has write permission
-for users in the group because that was the case for the directory.
-.PP
-To modify permissions, the
-.CW chmod
-(change mode)
-.ix [chmod]
-.ix "change permissions
-command can be used. Its first argument grants or revocates permissions. The
-following arguments are files where to perform this permission change. For example,
-to grant execution permission for file
-.CW program ,
-you may execute
-.P1
-\S'15'; chmod +x program\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-To remove write permission for an important file that is not to be overwritten, you may
-.P1
-\S'15'; chmod -w file\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-The
-.CW +
-sign grants permission. The
-.CW -
-sign removes it. The characters following this sign indicate which permissions to
-grant or remove. For example,
-.CW +rx
-grants both read and execution permissions.
-.PP
-If you want to change the permissions just for the owner, or just for the group, or
-just for anyone else, you may specify this before the
-.CW +
-or
-.CW -
-sign. For example,
-.P1
-\S'15'; chmod g+r docs\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-grants read permission to users in the group. Permissions for the owner and for
-the rest of the world remain unaffected. In the same way
-.CW u+r
-would grant read permission for the owner, and
-.CW o+r
-would do the same for others.
-.PP
-In some cases, for example, in C programs, you are going to have to use an
-integer to indicate file permissions. There are three permissions repeated three
-times, once for the user, once for the group, and once for others. This is codified
-as nine bits. Using a number in octal base, which has three bits for each digit,
-it is very simple to write a number for a given permission set.
-.PP
-For example, consider the ACL
-.CW rwxr-xr-x .
-That is three bits for the user, three for the group, and three for others. A bit is
-set to grant permission and clear to deny it. For the user, the bits would be 111,
-for the group, they would be 101, and for the others they would also be 101.
-.PP
-You know that 111 (binary) is 7 decimal. It is the same in octal. You also know that
-101 (binary) is 5 decimal. It is the same in octal. Therefore, an integer value representing
-this ACL would be 0755 (octal). We use the same format used by C to write
-.ix "octal mode
-.ix "permissions in~octal
-octal numbers, by writing an initial 0 before the number. Figure 1.6
-depicts the process. Thus, the command
-.P1
-\S'15'; chmod 755 afile\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-would leave
-.CW afile
-with
-.CW rwxr-xr-x
-permissions.
-.LS
-.PS
-boxwid=.2
-boxht=.2
-down
-.CW
-[ right
- [ down; box invis "r" ; arrow down ]
- [ down; box invis "w" ; arrow down ]
- [ down; box invis "x" ; arrow down ]
- box invis
- [ down; box invis "r" ; arrow down ]
- [ down; box invis "-" ; arrow down ]
- [ down; box invis "x" ; arrow down ]
- box invis
- [ down; box invis "r" ; arrow down ]
- [ down; box invis "-" ; arrow down ]
- [ down; box invis "x" ; arrow down ]
-]
-.R
-move .1
-B: [ right
- U: [
- [ down; box invis "1" ]
- [ down; box invis "1" ]
- [ down; box invis "1" ]
- ]
- box invis
- G: [
- [ down; box invis "1" ]
- [ down; box invis "0" ]
- [ down; box invis "1" ]
- ]
- box invis
- O: [
- [ down; box invis "1" ]
- [ down; box invis "0" ]
- [ down; box invis "1" ]
- ]
-]
-move .1
-arrow from B.U.s down ; box invis "7"
-arrow from B.G.s down ; box invis "5"
-arrow from B.O.s down ; box invis "5"
-reset boxwid, boxht
-.PE
-.DS C
-\fBFigure 1.6:\fP Specifying permissions as integers using octal numbers.
-.DE
-.BS 2 "Writing a C program in Plan 9
-.ix "C program
-.LP
-Consider the traditional “take me to your leader!” programⁱ, that we show here.
-We typed it into a file named
-.CW take.c .
-.ix [take.c]
-.ix "C program
-.ix "C language
-When we show a program that is stored in a particular file, the file name
-is shown in a little box before the file contents.
-.FS
-ⁱ Because we talk about Plan 9, this program is more appropriate than the
-one you are thinking on. If you don't know why, you did not use Internet to
-discover why this system has this name.
-.FE
-.so progs/take.c.ms
-.LP
-This program is just text stored in a file. To execute it, we must compile it
-.ix "compiler
-.ix "library
-and then link the program with whatever libraries are necessary (in this case,
-the C library). There is one command for each task:
-.P1
-\S'15'; 8c take.c # compile it\S'0'
-\S'15'; 8l take.8 # link the resulting object\S'0'
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.ix [8c]
-.ix [8l]
-.ix Intel
-.LP
-As you see, the shell
-ignores text following the
-.CW #
-sign. That is the line-comment character for
-.ix "shell comment~character
-.CW rc .
-That is usual in most shells found in other systems, like UNIX.
-.ix UNIX
-The C compiler for Intel architectures is
-.CW 8c
-(80x86 compiler)
-and
-.CW 8l
-is the linker (In Plan9,
-.CW 8l
-is called a
-.I loader ,
-.ix loader
-because it prepares the way for loading the resulting program into memory).
-Object files generated by
-.CW 8c
-use the extension
-.CW .8 ,
-to make it clear that the object is for an Intel (it reminds of 8086). The binary file
-produced by linking the object file(s) and the libraries implied
-.ix "binary file
-.ix [8.out]
-is named
-.CW 8.out ,
-when using
-.CW 8l .
-This binary has execute permission and can be executed.
-.PP
-In Plan 9 there are many C compilers. One for each architecture where
-.ix cross-compiler
-the system runs. And, as it could be expected, each compiler has been compiled
-for all the architectures where the system runs.
-For example, for the Arm, the compiler is
-.CW 5c
-and the linker
-.CW 5l .
-.ix [5c]
-.ix [5l]
-.ix arm
-We have these programs available for all the architectures (e.g., PCs, and Arms).
-To compile for one architecture you only have to use the compiler that generates
-code for it. But you can compile from any other architecture because the compiler
-itself is available for all of them.
-.PP
-For the Arm, the files generated by the compiler and the linker would be
-.CW take.5
-and
-.CW 5.out .
-This makes it easy to compile a single program for execution at different
-platforms in the same directory. We still know which file is for which architecture.
-Now you may have the pleasure of executing your first hand-made Plan 9 program
-.P1
-\S'15'; 8.out\S'0'
-take me to your leader!
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-The Plan 9 C dialect is not ANSI (nor ISO) C. It is a variant implemented by Ken
-Thompson. One of the authors of UNIX. It has a few differences with respect to
-.ix "Ken Thompson
-the C language you can use in other system. You already noticed some. Most
-programs include just two files,
-.CW u.h ,
-which contains machine and system definitions, and
-.CW libc.h ,
-.ix [u.h]
-.ix [libc.h]
-.ix "standard includes
-.ix "header files
-which contains most of the things you will need. The header files include
-a hint for the linker that is included in the object file. For example, this is
-the first line in the file
-.CW libc.h :
-.P1
-#pragma lib "libc.a"
-.P2
-.LP
-The linker uses this
-.ix [pragma]
-to automatically link against the libraries with headers included by your programs.
-There is no need to supply a long list of library names in the command line for
-.CW 8l !.
-.PP
-There are several flags that may be given to the compiler to make it more
-.ix "compiler flags
-strict regarding the source code. It is very sensible to use them always. The
-.I 8c (1)
-manual page details them, and we hope you just take them as a custom:
-.P1
-\S'15'; 8c -FVw take.c\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-The binary file generated by
-.CW 8l
-is
-.CW 8.out ,
-by default. But it may be more convenient to give a better name to this file.
-This can be done with the
-.CW -o
-.ix "[8l] flag~[-o]
-option for the linker. If we use a file name like
-.CW take ,
-the file should be kept at a directory where it is clear
-which architecture it has been compiled for. For example, for PCs, binaries are
-kept at
-.CW /386/bin
-or at
-.CW /usr/nemo/bin/386
-for the user
-.CW nemo .
-This is what is done when the program is
-.I installed
-for people to use. People enjoy typing just the program name.
-.PP
-But otherwise, it is a custom to generate a binary file with a
-name that states clearly the architecture it requires. Think that you may be
-compiling a program today while using a PC as a terminal. Tomorrow morning
-you might be doing the same on an Alpha. You wouldn't like to get confused.
-.PP
-The tradition to name the binary file is to use the name
-.CW 8.out
-if the directory contains the source code for just one program, or a name like
-.CW 8.take
-if there are multiple programs that can be compiled in the same directory. This is
-our case.
-.PP
-In this text we will always compile for the same architecture, an Intel PC,
-unless said otherwise, and generate the binary in the directory where we
-are working. For example, for our little program, this would be the command used
-to generate its binary:
-.P1
-\S'15'; 8l -o 8.take take.8\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-For the first few programs, we will explicitly say how we compiled them. Later,
-we start assuming that you remember that the binary for a file named
-.CW take.c
-was compiled and linked using
-.P1
-\S'15'; 8c -FVw take.c\S'0'
-\S'15'; 8l -o 8.take take.8\S'0'
-\S'15';\S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-and the resulting executable is at
-.CW 8.take .
-.PP
-There is an excellent paper for learning how to use the Plan 9 C compiler
-[4]. It is a good thing to read if you want to learn more details
-not described here about how to use the compiler.
-.BS 2 "The Operating System and your programs
-.LP
-So far so good. But, what is the actual relation between the system and your
-programs? How can you understand what happens? You will see that things
-are simpler than you did image. But let's revisit what happens to your
-program after you write it, before bringing the operating system in the play.
-We can use some commands to do this. By now, ignore what you cannot understand.
-.P1
-\S'15'; ls -l take.c take.8 8.take\S'0'
---rwxr-xr-x M 19 nemo nemo 36280 Jul 2 18:46 8.take
---rw-r--r-- M 19 nemo nemo 388 Jul 2 18:46 take.8
---rw-r--r-- M 19 nemo nemo 110 Jul 2 18:46 take.c
-.P2
-.LP
-The command
-.CW ls
-tells us that
-.CW take.c
-has 110 bytes in it. That is the text of our program. After
-.ix "program text
-.CW 8c
-compiled it, the resulting object file
-.ix "object file
-.CW take.8
-has just 388 bytes in it. The contents are machine instructions for our
-program plus initial values for our variables (e.g., the string printed) and
-some other information. If we take this object file, and give it to
-.CW 8l
-to link it against the C library and produce the binary file
-.ix "binary file
-.CW 8.take ,
-we get a file with 36.280 bytes on it.
-.PP
-Let's try to gather more information about these files. The command
-.CW nm
-(name list)
-.ix [nm]
-displays the names of
-.I symbols
-.ix "program symbols
-(i.e., procedure names, variables) that are contained or required by our
-object and executable files.
-.P1
-\S'15'; nm take.8\S'0'
- U exits
- T main
- U print
-\S'15'; nm 8.take\S'0'
- ... more output...
- 1131 T exits
- 1020 T main
- 118d T print
- ... more output...
-\S'15'; \S'0'
-.P2
-.LP
-It seems that
-.CW take.8
-contains a procedure
-called
-.CW main .
-We call text to binary program code, and
-.CW nm
-prints a
-.CW T
-before names for symbols that are text and are contained in the object file.
-Besides, our object file requires at least two other procedures,
-.CW exits ,
-.ix [exits]
-and
-.CW print
-.ix [print]
-to build a complete binary program. We know this because
-.CW nm
-prints
-.CW U
-(undefined, but required) before names for required things.
-.ix "undefined symbol
-.PP
-If we look at the output for the executable file, you will notice that
-the three procedures are in there. Furthermore, they now have addresses!
-The code for
-.CW exits
-is at address 1131 (hexadecimal), and so on.
-The code that is now linked to our object file comes from the C library.
-It was included because we included the library's header
-.CW libc.h
-in our program and called some functions found in that library. The linker,
-.CW 8l ,
-knew where to find that code.
-.PP
-But there is more code that is used by our program and is not contained
-in the binary file. When our program calls
-.CW print ,
-.ix "library function"
-this function will write bytes to the output (e.g., the window). But the procedure
-that knows how to write is not in our program, nor is in the C library. This procedure
-is within the operating system kernel. A procedure provided by the system is
-known as a
-.B "system call" ,
-calling such procedure is known as making a system call.
-.LS
-.PS
-.CW
-down
-.ps -2
-U: [ right; P: box wid 3.5 ht .75 ; move .25 ; Q: box wid 1.5 ht .75 "main() { ...}" ]-move .4
-K: box wid 5.25 ht .7 "write() { ...}"-C: [
-right
-box invis wid 1.2 ht .5 "main() { ...} " -arrow right 1 "\fRprocedure\fP" "\fRcall\fP"
-F: box invis wid 1.3 ht .5 "print() { ...} "-] at U.P
-.R
-arrow from C.F.s down .5 "system call" ljust
-box invis ht .3 "Your program" with .sw at U.P.nw
-box invis ht .3 "Other program" with .sw at U.Q.nw
-box invis ht .3 "System kernel" with .sw at K.nw
-.ps +2
-.PE
-.DS C
-\fBFigure 1.7:\fP System calls, user programs, and the system kernel.
-.DE
-.PP
-Figure 1.7 depicts two different programs, e.g., the one you executed before
-and another one, and the system kernel. Those programs are executing, not
-just files sitting on a disk. Your program contains
-.I all
-the code it needs to execute, including portions of the C library. Your
-.CW main
-procedure calls
-.CW print ,
-with a local procedure call. The code for print was taken from the C library and
-linked into your program by
-.CW 8l .
-To perform its job,
-.CW print
-calls another procedure,
-.CW write ,
-.ix [write]
-that is contained within the operating system kernel. That is a system call. As you
-can see in the figure, the other program might perform its own system calls as well.
-.PP
-In general, you don't mind if a particular function is a system call or is defined in
-the standard system library (the C library). Many functions that are part of the
-interface of the system are not actual system calls (i.e., are not implemented
-within the kernel), but library functions. For example, the manual page for
-.I read (2)
-gives multiple functions that can be used to read and write a file. However, only one, or
-maybe a few, are actual system calls. The others are implemented within the C
-library in terms of the real system call(s). Going from one version of the system
-to another, we may find that an old system call is now a library function, and
-vice-versa. What matters is that the function is part of the programmer's
-interface for a system provided
-abstraction. Indeed, in what follows, we may refer to functions within the C library
-as system calls. Be warned. In any case, the entire section 2 of the manual
-describes the functions available.
-.PP
-As a remark, programmer's interfaces are usually called APIs, for
-Application Programmer's Interface.
-.BS 2 "Where are the files?
-.LP
-If you remember, we said that your files are not kept in the machine you use to
-execute Plan 9 commands and programs. Plan 9 calls the machine you use, a
-.I terminal ,
-.ix terminal
-and the machine where the files are kept, a
-.I "file server" .
-.ix "file server
-The Plan 9 that runs at your terminal lets you use the files that you have
-available at other places in the network, and there can be many of them. For
-simplicity, we assume that all your files are stored at a single machine behaving
-as the file server.
-.PP
-How does this work? What we said about how a program performs a system call to
-the kernel, to write into a file, is still true. But there was something missing in the
-description we made in the last section. To do the write you requested, your Plan 9
-kernel is likely to need to talk to another machine. Most probably, your terminal does
-.I not
-have the file, and must get in touch with the file server to ask him to write the file.
-.PP
-Figure 1.8 shows the steps involved for doing the same
-.CW print
-shown in the last section. This time, it shows how the file server comes into play, and
-it shows only your program. Other programs running at your terminal would follow
-a similar path.
-.LS
-.PS 4.5cm
-.CW
-.ps -3
-down
-boxht=.75
-boxwid=2.6
-U: box wid boxwid*6/7
-move .5
-T: box
-F: box wid 1.5 at T.e + 2.5,0
-Prog: [ right
- M: box invis wid .2 ht .6 "main(){" rjust "... " rjust "} " rjust- move .8
- P: box invis wid .2 ht .6 "print(){" ljust "... " ljust "} " ljust - line -> from M.e + 0,.05 to P.w + 0,.05 "\fR1. call\fP" above
- line <- from M.e - 0,.05 to P.w - 0,.05 "\fR6. return\fP" below
-] at U
-Call: [
- box invis wid 1 ht .6 "write(){" ljust "... " ljust "} " ljust-] with .w at T
-line -> from Prog.P.s +.05,0 to Call.n +.05,0 "\fR 2. system call\fP" ljust
-line <- from Prog.P.s - .05,0 to Call.n - .05,0 "\fR5. return \fP" rjust
-Wr: [
- box invis wid .2 ht .6 "write(){" ljust "... " ljust "} " ljust-] with .w at F.w + .2,0
-line -> dotted from Call.e +0,0.05 to Wr.w +0,0.05 "\fR 3. message: write!\fP" above
-line <- dotted from Call.e -0,0.05 to Wr.w -0,0.05 "\fR 4. message: done!\fP" below
-box invis wid 1 ht .2 "\fBYour program\fP" with .sw at U.nw
-box invis wid 1 ht .2 "\fBYour terminal's kernel\fP" with .sw at T.nw
-box invis wid 1 ht .2 "\fBFile server\fP" with .sw at F.nw
-.ps +3
-.PE
-.DS C
-\fBFigure 1.8:\fP Your system kernel makes a remote procedure call to write a file in the file server.
-.DE
-.IP 1
-Your program makes a
-.I "procedure call" ,
-to the function
-.CW print
-in the C library.
-.IP 2
-The function makes a
-.I "system call"
-to the kernel in your machine. This is similar to a procedure call, but calls a procedure
-that is implemented by your kernel and shared among all the programs in your terminal.
-Because the kernel protects itself to prevent your program from calling arbitrary
-.ix "privileged mode
-.ix kernel
-.ix "software interrupt
-procedures in the kernel, a software interrupt is the mechanism used to perform this call.
-This is called a
-.B trap ,
-and is mostly irrelevant for you now.
-.IP 3
-The code for the
-.CW write
-function (the system call) in the kernel, must send a message through the network to
-the machine that keeps the file, to the file server. This message contains a request
-to perform the write operation and all the information needed to perform it, e.g.,
-all the values and data you supplied as parameters for the write.
-.IP 4
-The remote machine, the file server, performs the operation and replies sending a
-message through the network back to your terminal. The message reports if the
-operation was completed or not, and contains any output result for the operation
-performed, e.g., the number of bytes that could be written into the file.
-.IP 5
-Your kernel does some bookkeeping and returns to your system call
-the result of the operation (as reported by the other machine).
-.IP 6
-The library function returns to your program when everything was printed.
-.LP
-Steps 3 and 4 are called a
-.B "remote procedure call" .
-This is not as complex as it sounds, but it is not a procedure call either. A remote
-procedure call is a call made by one program to another that is at a different
-place in the network. Because your processor cannot call procedures kept
-at different machines, what the system does is to send a message with a request
-to do something, and to receive a reply back with any result of interest.
-.BS 2 "The Shell, commands, binaries, and system calls
-.ix shell
-.ix "command interpreter
-.ix "command
-.ix "command line
-.ix "binary file
-.ix "system call
-.LP
-It is important to know how these elements come into play. As you know, the
-operating system provides the implementation of several functions, known
-as system calls. These functions provide the interface for the abstract data
-types invented by the system, to make it easier to use the computer.
-.PP
-In general, the only way to use the system is to write a program that makes
-system calls. However, there are many programs already compiled in your system,
-ready to run. To provide you some mean to run them, another program is provided:
-the shell. When you type a command name at the shell prompt, the shell searches
-for a file with the same name located at a directory that, by convention, keeps
-the executable files for the system. If the shell finds such file, it asks the system to
-execute it.
-.LS
-.PS
-.ps -2
-down
-[
-right
-xterm(0.5)
-spline <-> dotted right then down .5 then right .1 then up .5 then right "read" "command line"
-circle rad .3 "shell"
-spline -> dotted right then down .5 then right .1 then up .5 then right "execute" "/bin/ls"
-circle rad .3 "ls"
-]
-move -.1
-box wid 5 "system kernel"
-.ps +2
-.PE
-.DS C
-\fBFigure 1.9:\fP Executing commands.
-.DE
-.PP
-Figure 1.9 shows what happens when you type
-.CW ls
-at the shell prompt.
-First, the shell reads your command line. It looks for a file named
-.CW /bin/ls ,
-and because there is such file, the shell executes it. To read the command
-line, and to execute the corresponding file for the command you typed,
-the shell uses system calls. Only the operating system knows what it means
-to “read” and to “execute” a file. Remember, the hardware knows nothing about
-that!
-.PP
-The consequence of your command request is that the program contained in
-.CW /bin/ls
-is loaded into memory by the operating system and gets executed as a
-new program. Note that if you create a new executable file, you have created
-a new command. All you have to do to run it is to give its (file) name to the shell.
-.PP
-When you run a window system, things are similar. The only difference is that
-.ix "window system
-the window system must read input from both the mouse and the keyboard and
-writes at a graphics terminal instead of at a text display. Of course, when
-the window system creates (i.e., “invents”) a new window, it has to ask the
-system to run a shell on it.
-.BS 2 "The Operating System and the hardware
-.ix hardware
-.LP
-As you can imagine now, most of the time, the operating system is not even
-executing. Usually, it is your code the one running in the processor. At least, until
-the point in time when your program makes a system call. At that point, the
-operating system code takes control (because its code starts executing) and
-performs your request.
-.ix "program execution
-.PP
-However, the hardware may also require attention from the operating system.
-As you know from computer architecture courses, this is done by means of
-hardware interrupts. When data arrives from the network, or you hit a keyboard key,
-.ix "hardware interrupt
-.ix "hardware device
-the hardware device interrupts the processor. What happens later
-is that the interrupt handler runs after the hardware saves the processor state.
-.PP
-The interrupt handlers are kept within the operating system kernel. The kernel
-contains the code used to operate each particular device. That is called a
-.B "device driver" .
-Device drivers use I/O instructions to operate the devices, and the devices interrupt
-the processor to request the attention of their drivers. Thus, while your program
-is executing, a device might interrupt the processor. The hardware saves some
-state (registers mostly) and the operating system starts executing to attend
-the interrupt. Many times, when the interrupt has been serviced, the operating
-system will return from the interruption and your code would be running again.
-.PP
-You can think that the kernel is a library but not just for your programs, also for
-things needed to operate the hardware. You make system calls to ask the
-system to do things. The hardware issues interrupts for that purpose. And most
-of the time, the system is idle sitting in memory, until some one makes a call.
-.SH
-Problems
-.IP 1
-Open a system shell, execute
-.CW ip/ping
-to determine if all of the machines at the network 213.128.4.0
-are alive or not. To do this, you have to run these 254 commands:
-.P1
-\S'15'; ip/ping -n 1 213.128.4.1\S'0'
-\S'15'; ip/ping -n 1 213.128.4.2\S'0'
- ...
-\S'15'; ip/ping -n 1 213.128.4.254\S'0'
-.P2
-.IP
-The option
-.CW -n
-with argument
-.CW 1
-tells ping to send just one probe and not 64, which would be its default.
-.IP 2
-Do the same using this shell command line:
-.P1
- ; for (m in `{seq 1 254}) { ip/ping 213.128.4.$m }-.P2
-.IP
-This line is not black magic. You are quite capable of doing things like this,
-provided you pass this course.
-.IP 3
-Start the system shell in all the operating systems where you have accounts. If
-you know of a machine running an unknown system where you do not have an account,
-ask for one and try to complete this exercise there as well.
-.IP 4
-Does your TV set remote control have its own operating system?
-Why does your mobile phone include an operating system? Where is the
-shell in your phone?
-.IP 5
-Explain this:
-.P1
-\S'15'; lc .\S'0'
-bin lib tmp
-\S'15'; ls.\S'0'
-ls.: '/bin/ls.' file does not exist
-.P2
-.IP 6
-How many users do exist in your Plan 9 system?
-.IP 7
-What happens if you do this in your home directory? Explain why.
-.P1
-\S'15'; touch a\S'0'
-\S'15'; mv a a\S'0'
-.P2
-.IP 8
-What would happen when you run this? Try it and explain.
-.P1
-\S'15'; mkdir dir\S'0'
-\S'15'; touch dir/a dir/b\S'0'
-\S'15'; rm dir\S'0'
-\S'15'; mv dir /tmp\S'0'
-.P2
-.IP 9
-And what if you do this? Try it and explain.
-.P1
-\S'15'; mkdir dir dir/b\S'0'
-\S'15'; cd dir/b\S'0'
-\S'15'; rm ../b\S'0'
-\S'15'; pwd\S'0'
-.P2
-.ds CH
-.bp
-